Archive for May 2021

Vertex Operators and Conformal Mapping

We can use the Feynman diagrams to replicate the process of scattering with strings. For particle interactions, we can do Feynman diagrams (for , see this - just topologies). For strings, we can do the same; we call them "string diagrams." A closed string forming two closed strings is depicted by changing the point-particle by strings and word line by worldsheet.




The crossing line indicates (this one line is for collective dimensions. However, there should be definitive for each one) that there is not one for all Lorentz frame, unlike in point particle theory, but two. It can be interpreted that the point-particle Feynman diagram is just a limiting case of the string diagrams. Furthermore, one string diagram (with vertex function) can be deformed to a few particle Feynman diagrams. That is one of the reasons why there are not many string diagrams. Lorentz frames are also the reason for the absence of ultraviolet divergence because of independent defined Lorentz sites at interaction.

Similarly, one can do the one-loop of string diagrams as we do in point particle. But, the convenience and Lorentz issue demand something better. We do that by conformally mapping the string diagrams. In this case, we map it to a topological disk (genus-0)




Among the advantages of conformal mapping, one being that there would not be the h (associated with  ) integrals in the matrix calculations. But what about the conservation of quantum numbers after topological mapping? For that, we introduce vertex operators. In the conformal image, cross-markers indicate the strings (the top one shows the far past string, and the bottom two indicates the far future newly born closed strings). The marked area is for the vertex operator. We can introduce it with the symbol , where m is for an m-type particle. This operation is effortless in a 1+1  system, which indeed we are following. The  is the operator for local absorption and emission of string states. We can introduce another operator , which is for the re-parametrization of the mapping. While W operators account for Lorentz transformation, we must also take accounts of translation. That is how we reach a well-known translation operator


The final operator for emission and absorption becomes


We need to fix the residual gauge invariance for the special linear group (when calculating the M-point functions). Conformal mapping for open strings (in this case, it should be on the boundary of the disk) is done in similar ways, however, they are different.

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Veneziano Amplitude

In string theory, when we write the Feynman diagrams, we denote amplitude for open and closed string, as Veneziano and Virasoro-Shapiro amplitudes (a complex beta function) respectively (we will only discuss the former). Veneziano amplitude is an Euler beta function that obeys the crossing symmetry and looks*

where s and t are Mandelstem variables defined;
and $ \alpha(s) $ is Regge trajectory.

The amplitude is a result of the work on the duality between s and t channels. According to this duality, the sum of all the s channels and t channels should be equal. It was written for a model obeying the Regge trajectory which at the time was indicating not the string theory, but a QCD theory.  The Euler form of the amplitude can be written through expansions as**


because any beta function of the form
can be written as 

Note * has only one pole rather than two and ** is written in t poles. What we can do is writing ** in s poles, which then


And that is the duality. We can study various aspects of it by keeping t fixed or s fixed. This is done in the very first paper on this by Veneziano, here. Also, in integral representation, as like a beta function, this amplitude can be written as 
                  
                  
In large s and fixed t
                                               
it is valid for a complex large s plane unless one gets too close to the positive real line. This indicates that quantum corrections would be received by the imaginary part. In large s and fixed t, one can also write $A(s,t) \sim s^{\alpha(t)}$ (for linear Regge trajectory), and since in general Regge theory $A(s,t)\sim s^J$ where J is averaged (effective) angular momentum, we see  

$$\boxed{ J = \alpha(t)}$$


For a good understanding of this amplitude (or string theory), you can read Superstring Theory by Green, Schwarz, and Witten. Or Polchinksi's volumes.

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Half-Baked Problems with Quantum Mechanics

In quantum mechanics, there are many problems; the biggest of them (according to a group) is finding the first and initial state. We are talking about the initial state of the observable universe; it sounds cliche. But people believe that if we can find the initial state, we can determine the difference between the macroscopic and microscopic world. I have not any thoughts on that. However, as like many, my respect for quantum mechanics is just fundamental (and theoretical). When you do quantum mechanics, without any evidence of research, you will likely come to believe that 'what is true and what is wrong' is differently to be seen in the subject.


Just like the statistical mechanics, we have $\rho$ the density matrix in quantum mechanics. This looks like

which tells you the probability of each state into finding, the bracket notations used in this style is called projection operator. If you are a realist, you should not see this as a superposition, and in fact, it is not any superimposed thing. This $\rho$ being classical shouldn't be the problem. 


When we come to 'Copenhagen's Interpretation of quantum mechanics, which is heavily misguided in different ideologies, we can observe incompleteness and loss of determinism. The former and latter can be written to co-exist as 'no macroscopic evidence.' It is not entirely true. However, it is accepted that the interpretations can be completed by the completeness of matching the probabilistic theory to macroscopic lurches of evidence. Indeed, we would enjoy a version like this. Rather than this, the Copenhagen interpretation is widely celebrated as a successful interpretation.

_____________________


The reason these are half-baked problems that no one now cares about it. These problems are widely accepted as 'reality and fundamental.' Even when young people try to think about it, they fall into the prey of 'cancellation' and 'no go' which they say are occults of the subject. But, my stance is quantum mechanics is an achievement that we should sing from time to time.


Notes; A friend of mine shared with me an unlisted link of a talk by Weinberg at 'Standard Model at 50', in which he talks the same. And in fact, this post is inspired by his talk. 


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mBninatwq6k



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How 'His Majesty' was interested in Nature?

As I have called out on 'curiosity' in the past post. I am very much now interested in reading the 'wunderkammer and curiosity centers of the kings or ancients people. Surprisingly, some kings were too interested in finding the occults of nature, and their funding was too high for science. Although, it can be debated whether that science can be said 'science.' Notwithstanding, the alchemists working for a life-serum or turning things into gold.


Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II of Prague was interested in science. He was the king who is credited for 'thirty years war.' Despite that political naivety, he was superbly interested and invested in science, and he built his curiosity buildings all over Europe. His curiosity building was divided into three rooms, namely - scientifica, artificialia, and naturalia. Not to mention that while Rudolf was busy finding the occults - which he didn't find, he used to gather mathematicians, alchemists, and other types of scientists (Kepler was in this group for a time) and tell them to reveal the mysteries about skies, wizards - people declared him mad


In Prague, where he built the institute, there were too many researchers working in the shadow of Rudolf II. Now, this is the concept of today's institutions. For instance, a much-developed idea is Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton. It shows that when fine minds work together, then there is always some outcome, not necessarily positive. Although Rudolf's team was busy finding the magic of nature, they were doing some things, not necessarily science. It fascinates me how were the scientists in the 17th century. I may not like the workflow and their ideas, but I like the lurch in their stargazing.


There is a word 'Rudolfine' that is used to describe the arts that he patronized.



With Alchemists and other sorts of mathematicians. Taken from here.

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Canonically Quantized Strings

A course into Quantum Field Theory (QFT) is passed through the passage of Quantization. In QFT, we quantize our classical fields using canonical quantization. However, one can also quantize the fields using the path integrals. A canonical quantization, also known as second quantization, is a series of steps. In order to quantize a field using canonical quantization, we first find its Lagrangian. A Lagrangian is yet another formalism to develop theories, and every Lagrangian gives an equation of motion using the Euler Lagrange equation;

$$S({q})=\int_{a}^{b} \mathrm{d} t L(t, {q}(t), \dot{{q}}(t)) $$

$$\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial q_{i}}-\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d} t}\left(\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial q_{i}^{\prime}}\right)=0$$

In our following coordinates, we tend to use light-cone coordinates for a target space (a space where our strings action are parameterized, typically where our $\eta_{\mu \nu}$ is 

$$X^{\pm} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} (X^0 \pm X^{D-1})$$

$$\eta_{+-} = \eta_{-+} = -1,\ n_{ij}=\delta_{ij}$$

our inner product follows

$$X^2 = - 2X^+X^- + \dot{X}^i  \dot{X}^i $$

    For those who are familiar with the string theory notion, we use coordinates as a function of $\tau, \sigma$. An expansion of $X^+(\tau, \sigma)$ gives us 

$$X^{+}(\tau, \sigma)=x^{+}+\alpha^{\prime} p^{+} \tau+i \sqrt{\frac{\alpha^{\prime}}{2}} \sum_{n \in \mathbb{Z}, n \neq 0} \frac{1}{n} \alpha_{n}^{+} e^{-i n \xi^{-}}+i \sqrt{\frac{\alpha^{\prime}}{2}} \sum_{n \in \mathbb{Z}, n \neq 0} \frac{1}{n} \tilde{\alpha}_{n}^{+} e^{-i n \xi^{+}}$$

these equation contains residual infinite dimensional symmetry (conforming killing vectors) which comes because of the choosen light cones gauge. The equation has a lot of oscilaltor modes, which can be killed by the residual infinite dimensional symmetry, hence we set the oscillator modes to 0

$$X^{+}(\tau, \sigma)=x^{+}+\alpha^{\prime} p^{+} \tau$$

we impose Virasoro constaints 

$$\partial_{\pm} X^{-}=\frac{1}{\alpha^{\prime} p^{+}}\left(\partial_{\pm} X^{i}\right)^{2}$$

    We can see that $X^-$ comes from the transverse oscillator $X^i$, and the $X^i$ have independent degrees of freedom. And $X^i$ contains two independent oscillator modes in light cones gauge. And, clearly, it helps us to with two polarization of string, i.e. $X^+, X^-$.

    Now the action, after turning to light cones, reads

$$\begin{aligned} S_{lc} &=\frac{1}{4 \pi \alpha^{\prime}} \int_{\Sigma} d \tau d \sigma\left[\left(\partial_{\tau} X^{i}\right)^{2}-\left(\partial_{\sigma} X^{i}\right)^{2}+2\left(-\partial_{\tau} X^{+} \partial_{\tau} X^{-}+\partial_{\sigma} X^{+} \partial_{\sigma} X^{-}\right)\right] \\ &=\frac{1}{4 \pi \alpha^{\prime}} \int_{\Sigma} d \tau d \sigma\left[\left(\partial_{\tau} X^{i}\right)^{2}-\left(\partial_{\sigma} X^{i}\right)^{2}\right]-\int d \tau p^{+} \partial_{\tau} q^{-} \\ & \equiv \int d \tau L \end{aligned}$$

where

$$q^{-} \equiv \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{0}^{2 \pi} d \sigma X^{-} .$$

from the action, we can find out the canonical momenta

$$p_{-} \equiv \frac{\partial L}{\partial \dot{q}^{-}}=-p^{+}, \quad \Pi_{i} \equiv \frac{\partial L}{\partial \dot{X}^{i}}=\frac{\dot{X}_{i}}{2 \pi \alpha^{\prime}}$$

and the commutation relation, we can infer, is

$$\left[X^{\mu}(\tau, \sigma), \Pi^{\mu}\left(\tau, \sigma^{\prime}\right)\right]=i \eta^{\mu \nu} \delta\left(\sigma-\sigma^{\prime}\right)$$

    The next step in the usual canonical process is tuning the oscillator modes to operators using construction and destruction operators. We say, that $\alpha^i_{-n}$ are creation operators with $n>0$ and $\alpha^i_{n}$ is destruction operator that kills the vacuum with $n<0$. They read

$$\alpha_{n}^{-}=\frac{1}{2 \sqrt{2 \alpha^{\prime}} p^{+}} \sum_{m=-\infty}^{m=\infty} \alpha_{n-m}^{i} \alpha_{m}^{i}$$

After ordering operator 

$$\alpha_{n}^{-}=\frac{1}{2 \sqrt{2 \alpha^{\prime}} p^{+}}\left(\sum_{m=-\infty}^{m=\infty}: \alpha_{n-m}^{i} \alpha_{m}^{i}:-a \delta_{n, 0}\right)$$

where we define

$$ \alpha_{m}^{i} \alpha_{n}^{i}: \equiv\left\{\begin{array}{ll}\alpha_{m}^{i} \alpha_{n}^{i} & \text { for } m \leq n \\ \alpha_{n}^{i} \alpha_{m}^{i} & \text { for } n<m\end{array}\right.$$

    This was the usual canonical quantization, that we read in QFT, applied in string theory. There are other options to quantize strings, but this introductory process is ideal for first-time string learners.

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